Here are four potential learning outcomes related to organs and their functions:
1. Identify and describe the structure and function of major organs: Students can identify and describe the location, structure, and function of major organs in the human body.
2. Explain the relationships between organs and systems: Students can explain how organs work together in systems to maintain overall health and function.
3. Understand the impact of organ dysfunction or disease: Students can understand the consequences of organ dysfunction or disease on overall health and well-being.
4. Apply knowledge of organ function to real-world scenarios: Students can apply their knowledge of organ function to real-world scenarios, such as understanding the impact of lifestyle choices on organ health or explaining the effects of medical conditions on organ function.
Organs and functions
Here are the main organs of the human body and their functions:
Circulatory System
1. Heart: Pumps blood throughout the body.
2. Blood vessels: Arteries, veins, and capillaries transport blood.
Respiratory System
1. Lungs: Exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide through breathing.
2. Trachea: Airways that lead to the lungs.
Digestive System
1. Mouth: Food enters the body and is broken down.
2. Esophagus: Food passes through to the stomach.
3. Stomach: Digests food with enzymes and acids.
4. Small intestine: Absorbs nutrients.
5. Large intestine: Absorbs water and eliminates waste.
Nervous System
1. Brain: Controls thoughts, movements, and functions.
2. Spinal cord: Transmits messages between brain and body.
3. Nerves: Carry signals throughout the body.
Other Vital Organs
1. Kidneys: Filter waste and excess fluids from blood.
2. Liver: Detoxifies, metabolizes, and produces vital proteins.
3. Pancreas: Produces hormones (insulin, glucagon) and digestive enzymes.
These organs work together to maintain overall health and function.
The liver is a large organ in the abdomen that performs many important bodily functions, including blood filtering. It is also considered a gland because it makes chemicals the body needs. Certain diseases and lifestyles can damage the liver, but there are many ways to protect this vital organ.
Your liver is the biggest organ in your body and it performs hundreds of functions every day.
What is the liver?
The human liver is an organ and gland in the human body. It’s spongy, wedge-shaped, reddish-brown in color and about the size of a football. The size varies based on how tall you are and how much you weigh.
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The liver is an essential organ, performing hundreds of functions necessary to sustain life. It's also a gland because it makes proteins and hormones that other parts of the body need.
Weighing, on average, about three pounds in an adult, the liver is the largest internal organ. Under normal conditions, the liver is located on the right side of the body, under the ribs. In a condition called situs inversus, the liver is located on the left side.
Issues related to the liver are called hepatic conditions. A medical professional who specializes in the liver is a hepatologist.
What does the liver do?
The liver has hundreds of jobs. Some of the most vital are:
Cleans toxins (harmful substances) out of the blood.
Gets rid of old red blood cells.
Makes bile, a fluid that helps the body digest (break down) food.
Metabolizes proteins, carbohydrates and fats so your body can use them.
Produces substances to help blood clot.
Regulates the amount of blood in the body.
Stores glycogen (an energy source) and vitamins to be used by the body later.
What are the parts of the liver?
The liver has two main parts: the larger right lobe and the smaller left lobe.
The lobes contain many blood vessels. Blood travels through the liver. The liver filters (cleans) the blood, removing toxins and waste that eventually leave the body through urine and feces.
The lobes also contain thousands of lobules (small lobes). These lobules connect with many bile ducts, tubes that transport bile from the liver to the small intestine.
What conditions and disorders affect the liver?
Many conditions can affect the liver. Among the most common are:
Diseases that occur when a person consumes too many toxins, such alcohol-related liver disease and fatty liver disease (extra fat).
Inherited diseases like hemochromatosis (iron overload) and Wilson disease (too much copper in the body).
Liver cancer, when abnormal cells grow too quickly.
Problems when the immune system attacks the liver, such as autoimmune hepatitis, primary sclerosing cholangitis and primary biliary cholangitis.
Viral infections, such as hepatitis A, hepatitis B and hepatitis C.
Many of these conditions can lead to cirrhosis (scarring) of the liver.
Sometimes, damaged liver tissue can regenerate, or grow back. Other times, liver disease can cause serious symptoms and even be life-threatening.
What are the symptoms of liver problems?
When a person has a liver problem, one of the most common symptoms is jaundice.
With jaundice, the skin and whites of the eyes turn yellow because of too much bilirubin in the blood. Bilirubin is a yellow waste product the liver gets rid of when it breaks down red blood cells. Higher levels of bilirubin indicate a possible problem in the liver.
Other symptoms of liver problems may include:
Build-up of fluid in the belly area (ascites).
Easy bruising.
Itchy skin.
Low blood pressure.
Pain in the abdomen.
Swelling in the legs or ankles.
Tremors (shaking).
Weakness, loss of balance or constant fatigue.
Confusion or loss of orientation
How can I keep my liver healthy?
To keep your liver healthy and functioning well, try to follow these tips:
Avoid toxins, such as chemicals, smoking and illegal drugs.
Don’t share needles, razors, toothbrushes or any other personal items, which can spread viruses.
Drink alcohol only in moderation.
Follow healthcare professionals’ instructions about medications, especially warnings against mixing medications and alcohol.
Maintain a healthy weight, including eating a nutritious diet and exercising regularly.
Practice safe sex to avoid hepatitis infection.
Talk to your healthcare provider about vaccinations against hepatitis.
Wash your hands frequently.
When should I seek medical attention?
If you have any symptoms of liver problems, especially jaundice or belly pain, talk to a healthcare provider. Anytime you have severe pain in your abdomen, get immediate medical care.
How do I know if I’m at risk for liver problems?
You may be at risk for liver problems if you:
Are exposed to chemicals regularly.
Have overweight/obesity.
Drink a lot of alcohol.
Have relatives who’ve had liver disease.
Practice poor personal hygiene, such as having unprotected sex, sharing personal items and not washing your hands often.
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The liver is both an organ and a gland that performs hundreds of functions vital to human life. Many common conditions and diseases can damage the liver, but you can take steps to protect it. Talk to a healthcare professional if you have any symptoms, especially jaundice or pain in your belly.
Most people have two kidneys, organs that sit in the back of your abdomen. Your kidneys’ primary function is to filter your blood. They also remove waste and balance your body’s fluids. Common kidney conditions include kidney disease, kidney infections and kidney cysts.
Overview
Function
Anatomy
Conditions and Disorders
Care
Additional Common Questions
Overview
Your kidneys filter through all your blood once an hour — keeping what you need and getting rid of the rest.
What are the kidneys?
The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs that filter your blood. Your kidneys are part of your urinary system.
Your kidneys filter about 200 quarts of fluid every day — enough to fill a large bathtub. During this process, your kidneys remove waste, which leaves your body as urine (pee). Most people pee about two quarts daily. Your body re-uses the other 198 quarts of fluid.
Your kidneys also help balance your body’s fluids (mostly water) and electrolytes. Electrolytes are essential minerals that include sodium and potassium.
Who is at the greatest risk of kidney problems?
People with diabetes or high blood pressure have the highest risk of kidney problems. Accidents or trauma can also harm your kidneys, such as car accidents or sports injuries.
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Function
What do the kidneys do?
Your kidneys have many important functions. They clean toxins and waste out of your blood. Common waste products include nitrogen waste (urea), muscle waste (creatinine) and acids. They help your body remove these substances. Your kidneys filter about half a cup of blood every minute.
In the process:
Blood flows into your kidneys through a large blood vessel called the renal artery.
Tiny blood vessels in your kidney filter the blood.
The filtered blood returns to your bloodstream through a large blood vessel called the renal vein.
Pee travels through tubes of muscle called ureters (yer-it-ter) to your bladder.
Your bladder stores pee until you release it through urination (peeing).
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The kidneys also:
Control the acid-base balance (pH balance) of your blood.
Make sugar (glucose) if your blood doesn’t have enough sugar.
Make a protein called renin that increases blood pressure.
Produce the hormones calcitriol and erythropoietin. Calcitriol is a form of vitamin D that helps your body absorb calcium. Erythropoietin helps your body make red blood cells.
An adrenal gland sits on top of each kidney. It produces hormones, including cortisol, which helps your body respond to stress.
Cortisol also plays a role in:
Controlling metabolism
Reducing inflammation
Regulating blood pressure
Increasing blood sugar levels
How do my kidneys filter blood?
Each kidney contains more than a million filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron consists of:
Glomeruli. Glomeruli are groups of tiny blood vessels that perform the first stage of filtering your blood. They then pass filtered substances to the renal tubules. The name for this process is glomerular filtration.
Renal tubules. These tiny tubes reabsorb and return water, nutrients and minerals your body needs (including sodium and potassium). The tubules remove waste, including excess acid and fluids through a process called diffusion. Your body sends the remaining waste through your kidneys’ collecting chambers. Eventually, it leaves your body as pee.
Can you live without a kidney?
You can live with just one kidney. Healthcare providers may remove one of your kidneys in a radical nephrectomy.
Someone may have only one kidney if they:
Had a kidney removed due to cancer or injury
Made a kidney donation to someone else for a kidney transplant
Were born with only one kidney (renal agenesis)
Were born with two kidneys but only one kidney works (kidney dysplasia)
Anatomy
Kidney anatomy, including their location in the body and details of the parts that make up your kidneys
Kidney anatomy.
Where are your kidneys located?
Your kidneys sit just below your ribcage and behind your belly. Typically, one kidney sits on either side of your spine. Your kidneys reside between your intestines and diaphragm. A ureter connects each kidney to your bladder.
What are the parts of the kidney?
Your kidneys are highly complex organs with many parts. The main parts of your kidney anatomy include:
Kidney capsule (renal capsule)
The renal capsule consists of three layers of connective tissue or fat that cover your kidneys. It protects your kidneys from injury, increases their stability and connects your kidneys to surrounding tissues.
Renal artery
The renal artery is a large blood vessel that controls blood flow into your kidneys. For most people at rest, the renal kidneys pump a little over 5 cups (1.2 liters) of blood to your kidneys each minute.
Renal cortex
The outer layer of your kidney, where the nephrons (blood-filtering units) begin. The renal cortex also creates the hormone erythropoietin (EPO), which helps make red blood cells in your bone marrow.
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Renal medulla
The renal medulla is the inner part of your kidney. It contains most of the nephrons with their glomeruli and renal tubules. The renal tubules carry urine to the renal pelvis.
Renal papilla
These pyramid-shaped structures transfer urine to the ureters. Dehydration and certain medications — especially nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) — may damage your renal papilla.
Renal pelvis
This funnel-shaped structure collects urine and passes it down two ureters. Urine travels from the ureters to the bladder, where it’s stored.
Renal vein
This vein is the main blood vessel that carries filtered blood out of your kidneys and back to your heart. Each of your kidneys has a renal vein.
What color are the kidneys?
Your kidneys are reddish-brown.
How big is a kidney?
Each kidney is about 4 or 5 inches long, around the size of a fist.
How much do my kidneys weigh?
The weight of your kidneys varies. Variances may include your height, weight, age, body mass index (BMI) and location.
If you’re male, your right kidney may range from 1/5 to about 1/2 lbs. (79 grams to 223 grams). Your left kidney may range from a little less than 1/5 to a little more than 1/2 lbs. (74 grams to 235 grams). Your kidneys may weigh between the weight of one tennis ball and four tennis balls.
If you’re female, your right kidney may range from a little more than 1/10 to 3/5 lbs. (55 grams to 274 grams). Your left kidney may range from 3/20 to a little less than 3/5 lbs. (67 grams to 261 grams). Your kidneys may weigh between the weight of one tennis ball or five tennis balls.
Conditions and Disorders
What causes kidney damage?
Your kidneys perform several important functions within your body. Many different disorders can affect them. Common conditions that impact your kidneys include:
Chronic kidney disease. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) may lessen your kidney function. Diabetes or high blood pressure usually causes CKD.
Kidney cancer. Renal cell carcinoma is the most common type of kidney cancer.
Kidney failure (renal failure). Kidney failure may be acute (worsen suddenly) or chronic (a permanent lessening of how well your kidneys work). End-stage renal disease is a complete loss of kidney function. It requires dialysis (treatment to filter your blood in place of your kidneys).
Kidney infection (pyelonephritis). A kidney infection can occur if bacteria enter your kidneys by traveling up your ureters. These infections cause sudden symptoms. Healthcare providers treat them with antibiotics.
Kidney stones. Kidney stones cause crystals to form in your urine and may block urine flow. Sometimes these stones pass on their own. In other cases, healthcare providers can offer treatment to break them up or remove them.
Kidney (renal) cysts. Fluid-filled sacs called kidney cysts grow on your kidneys. These cysts can cause kidney damage. Healthcare providers can remove them.
Polycystic kidney disease. Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) causes cysts to form on your kidneys. PKD is a genetic condition. It may lead to high blood pressure and kidney failure. People with PKD need regular medical monitoring.
Countless other disorders can affect your kidneys. Some of these conditions include:
Acidosis. Excess acid accumulates in your kidneys, which may cause many health problems. It can be life-threatening.
Acute or interstitial nephritis. Your kidneys become inflamed, sometimes after exposure to certain antibiotics, which may lead to kidney failure.
Azotemia. Nitrogen waste builds up in your kidneys. Without treatment, azotemia may be fatal.
Caliectasis. Excess fluid causes your calyces (where urine collection begins) to swell. Without treatment, caliectasis may result in kidney failure.
Diabetes-related nephropathy or hypertensive nephropathy. Unmanaged diabetes or chronically high blood pressure causes kidney damage.
Glomerular diseases. Glomerular diseases cause inflammation or damage to your glomeruli. Glomerular diseases may cause kidney failure.
Minimal change disease and nephrotic syndrome. Minimal change disease and nephrotic syndrome cause your kidneys to release the excess protein in your pee.
Papillary necrosis. Chunks of kidney tissue die in the medulla and papilla. The tissue can break off and clog your kidneys, leading to kidney failure.
Proteinuria. Proteinuria means you have high levels of protein in your kidneys. It can be a sign of kidney damage.
Pyelonephritis. This sudden kidney infection causes edema (swelling) in your kidneys. It can be life-threatening.
Uremia. Toxins that normally leave your body through your pee end up in your bloodstream. Without treatment, uremia can be fatal.
What are the first signs of kidney problems?
Most kidney problems don’t have signs in their early stages. As kidney damage progresses, you may notice:
Cramping muscles. Electrolyte imbalances cause your muscles to stiffen.
Dark urine or urine with blood in it. Damage to your kidneys’ filters lets blood cells leak into your urine.
Foamy urine. Bubbles in your pee can signal excess protein.
Itchy, dry skin. An imbalance of minerals and nutrients in your blood leads to itchy skin.
More frequent urination. Problems filtering waste cause you to pee more often.
Puffy eyes or swollen ankles and feet. Reduced kidney function can cause your body to hold onto protein and sodium, resulting in swelling.
Sleep problems, fatigue and lack of appetite. If toxins build up in your blood, your sleep, appetite and energy levels may be off.
What are common tests to check the health of my kidneys?
Healthcare providers use several tests to measure kidney function and diagnose kidney problems. Your provider may recommend:
Advanced imaging. An X-ray, CT scan, MRI, ultrasound or nuclear medicine image can show kidney abnormalities or obstructions (blockages).
Blood tests. Blood tests show how well your glomeruli filter your blood.
Kidney biopsy. During a kidney biopsy, your healthcare provider removes a small amount of your kidney tissue to examine it under a microscope.
Ureteroscopy. Your healthcare provider passes a tube (endoscope) through your urethra into your bladder and ureters to look for abnormalities.
Urinalysis. A urinalysis analyzes your pee. It measures specific substances, such as protein or blood.
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How can I keep my kidneys healthy?
It’s important to have regular checkups and blood and urine tests to measure your kidneys’ health. You can reduce your risk of developing a kidney problem by:
Avoiding or quitting smoking and using tobacco products (your provider can help you find ways to quit)
Cutting out excess salt, which can affect the balance of minerals in your blood
Drinking water
Increasing daily exercise, which can reduce high blood pressure
Limiting your use of NSAIDs, which can cause kidney damage if you take them too much
Maintaining a healthy weight
Monitoring your blood pressure levels
Watching your blood sugar levels if you have diabetes
Is drinking a lot of water good for my kidneys?
Drinking an appropriate amount of water is good for your kidneys. Water helps your kidneys get rid of toxins and wastes through your pee. It also helps keep your blood vessels healthy, making it easier for blood to deliver necessary nutrients to your kidneys.
It’s also a good idea to drink an appropriate amount of water to help prevent kidney stones and urinary tract infections (UTIs). Kidney stones are less likely to form when you have enough water in your kidneys. You’re less likely to get a UTI when you drink a lot of water because you’ll pee more. Peeing helps flush out the bacteria that cause UTIs.
In general, the color of your pee can reveal if you’re drinking enough water. Your pee should be light yellow or clear if you’re drinking enough water. If you’re dehydrated, your pee will be dark yellow.
How much water should I drink to keep my kidneys healthy?
On average, males should drink about 13 cups (3 liters) of water each day. On average, females should drink about 9 cups (a little over 2 liters) of water each day.
Is it possible to drink too much water?
Yes, it’s possible to drink too much water. Drinking too much water may cause water intoxication or hyponatremia (primary polydipsia). These conditions may cause seizures, coma, mental status changes and death without treatment.
Is it kidney pain or back pain?
Kidney pain and back pain are similar, and people often confuse them.
Back pain usually occurs in your lower back.
Kidney pain is deeper in your body and higher up your back. You’ll likely feel pain in your sides or your middle- to upper-back area (most often under your ribs, to the right or left of your spine). The pain may progress to other areas, including your abdomen or groin.
Kidney pain results from swelling or blockage of your kidneys or urinary tract. Symptoms include fever, nausea, vomiting or pain when you pee.
Additional Common Questions
When should I call my healthcare provider about my kidneys?
Kidney conditions can cause different symptoms in different people. If your kidneys aren’t working correctly, you may notice one or more of the following signs:
Changes in your urine or urination habits (like more frequent bathroom trips)
Confusion or trouble concentrating
Dry or itchy skin
Fatigue (extreme tiredness)
High blood pressure (hypertension)
Muscle cramps
Poor appetite or metallic taste of food
Stomach pain or vomiting
Swelling, especially around your hands or ankles
You should have your kidney function regularly tested if you have:
A family history of kidney disease
Diabetes
Heart disease
High blood pressure
Obesity or overweight
Regular use of certain medications, such as blood pressure medicine
A note from Cleveland Clinic
Your kidneys filter your blood and remove waste from your body. Your kidneys also help balance your body’s fluids and electrolytes. Many different conditions may affect your kidneys, so it’s essential to take steps to keep your kidneys healthy. Regular testing is a good idea if you have a high risk for kidney problems.
Your two lungs make oxygen available to your body and remove gases like carbon dioxide. There are many conditions that can affect your lungs. Not smoking may help you prevent some illnesses.
A step-by-step explanation of how your lungs work.
What are your lungs?
Your lungs make up a large part of your respiratory system, which is the network of organs and tissues that allow you to breath
You have two lungs, one on each side of your chest, which is also called the thorax. Your thorax is the area of your body between your neck and your abdomen.
Right lung
The lung on your right side is divided into three lobes: the superior, the middle and the inferior. It’s shorter than your left lung, but also wider than your left lung. Both of your lungs are covered with a protective covering called pleural tissue.
Left lung
Your left lung has two lobes: the superior and the interior. Your left lung is smaller than the right because your heart is where the middle lobe on your left lung would be. Your left lung has two parts that your right lung doesn’t have: the cardiac notch (where your heart fits) and the lingula, an extension of the superior lobe.
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Function
What do lungs do?
Your lungs make oxygen available to your body and remove other gases, such as carbon dioxide, from your body. This process takes place 12 to 20 times per minute.
When you inhale through your nose or mouth, air travels down your pharynx (back of your throat), passes through your larynx (voice box) and into your trachea (windpipe).
Your trachea is divided into two air passages called bronchial tubes. One bronchial tube leads to your left lung, the other to your right lung. For your lungs to perform their best, your airways need to be open when you inhale and when you exhale. They also need to be free from inflammation (swelling) and abnormal amounts of mucus.
Your bronchial tubes lead to smaller air passages called bronchi, and then into bronchioles. The bronchioles end in tiny air sacs called alveoli, where oxygen is transferred from the inhaled air to your blood. Alveoli look like clusters of small round fruits.
After absorbing oxygen, the blood leaves your lungs and is carried to your heart. From there, it’s pumped through your body to provide oxygen to the cells of your tissues and organs.
When cells use oxygen, they produce carbon dioxide and transfer it to your blood. Your bloodstream carries the carbon dioxide back to your lungs. When you exhale, you remove the carbon dioxide.
Your respiratory system prevents harmful substances from entering your lungs by using:
Small hairs in your nose that act as an air-cleaning system and help filter out large particles.
Mucus produced in your trachea and bronchial tubes to keep air passages moist and help catch dust, bacteria and other substances.
The sweeping motion of cilia (small hairs in your respiratory tract) to keep air passages clean. One of the reasons that cigarette smoke is dangerous is that it stops cilia from working properly.
Interesting facts about your lungs
You can have lobes of your lung removed and live. You can even live with only one lung.
Lungs are the only organs in your body that will float.
Exercise can help you increase your lung capacity.
A typical adult has 300 million to 500 million alveoli.
Anatomy
Where are your lungs located?
Your lungs are located in your chest (your thorax). Your thoracic cavity is the name of the space that contains your lungs and other organs. Your lungs rest on a muscle called your diaphragm.
What do lungs look like?
Healthy lungs are pinkish-gray in color. You’ve probably seen photographs that compare the lungs of people who smoke to the lungs of people who don’t. Damaged lungs are darker gray and can have black spots in them.
Your triangularly shaped right and left lungs look a little bit like the ears of an elephant.
A typical lung in a human adult lung weighs about 2.2 pounds and is a little longer than 9 inches when you’re breathing normally, and about 10.5 inches when your lungs are completely expanded.
Conditions and Disorders
What are the common conditions and disorders that affect your lungs?
There are many different lung conditions. Some are minor and temporary, while others are chronic and more severe.
Asbestosis: Inhaling asbestos fibers causes scars on your lungs and pleural tissue.
Asthma: Airway tightening makes breathing difficult.
Bronchiectasis: Inflamed bronchi cause you to cough up mucus and have trouble breathing.
Bronchitis: The main characteristic of this condition is coughing. Bronchitis can be acute or chronic.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): This is a progressive breathing disorder that can’t be reversed.
COVID-19: This infection can cause mild or severe respiratory illness.
Croup: This respiratory infection happens in children under the age of 5.
Cystic fibrosis: This inherited condition causes sticky mucus to build up in your lungs and other organs.
Influenza: This lung disease, known as the flu, is caused by a virus.
Lung cancer: A major risk factor for developing lung cancer is smoking cigarettes.
Mesothelioma: This type of cancer is mainly caused by breathing in asbestos fibers.
Pneumonia: This lung infection causes fluid in your lungs and can lead to hospitalization.
Pulmonary fibrosis: Scarring of your lungs causes breathing difficulty. It isn’t curable.
Pulmonary nodules: These growths in your lungs are mainly benign (noncancerous).
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV): This respiratory infection can happen in children and adults.
Tuberculosis: This infection affects your lungs, but can also affect other body parts.
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What are some common signs or symptoms of lung conditions?
Common signs and symptoms of lung conditions include:
Shortness of breath (dyspnea).
Chest pain.
Cough, especially chronic cough or coughing up blood or mucus.
Fatigue.
Wheezing.
Swelling in your ankles and feet.
What are some common tests to check the health of your lungs?
Your healthcare provider can tell certain things during a physical examination. They can:
Listen for sounds in your lungs, including those that indicate a problem, including crackles (also called rales), wheezing and stridor (a high-pitched noise).
Count the number of breaths you take (your respirations).
Hear a change in your voice while they’re listening to your lungs.
Use a device called a pulse oximeter to measure the oxygen levels in your blood.
In addition to a physical examination, your provider may order different kinds of tests, including:
Imaging tests show your provider what your lungs look like
Chest X-ray.
Computed tomography (CT) scan.
Ultrasound.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan.
Lung function tests (also called pulmonary function tests) tell your provider how well your lungs are working
Body plethysmography.
Diffusion testing.
Exhaled nitric oxide test.
Lung volume test.
Methacholine inhalation test.
Six-minute walk test.
Spirometry.
Procedures that may require sedatives or anesthesia
Bronchoscopy or endobronchial ultrasound bronchoscopy (EBUS).
Lung biopsy.
Thoractomy. Your surgeon makes a cut in between your ribs so they can diagnose or treat body parts located in your chest.
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What are common treatments for lung conditions?
If you have a lung condition, your treatment will depend on your actual condition, as well as your health status. Types of treatments may include medications, exercises, devices and surgeries.
Medications may be offered as inhalers, nebulizer solutions, oral products or injections (shots)
Steroids to reduce inflammation (swelling) in airways.
Antibiotics to treat infections.
Bronchodilators to open up airways. These come in long-acting and short-acting versions.
Mucolytics to make mucus thinner so it’s easier to cough up and out.
Oxygen therapy to improve your oxygen levels.
Chemotherapy and/or radiation to treat cancers.
Vaccines to help prevent infections.
Exercises and devices
Pursed lip breathing.
Diaphragmatic breathing.
Airway clearance devices, including vest therapy. These products help to clear your airways of mucus.
Surgeries
Lobectomy, the removal of one lobe of the lung.
Bilobectomy, the removal of two lobes of the lung.
Removal of sections of lungs.
Thoracentesis, a procedure to drain fluid from your lungs.
Thoracotomy.
Pneumonectomy, the removal of one lung.
Lung transplant.
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What can I do to keep my lungs healthy?
There are many things you can do to keep your lungs healthy or to help manage lung conditions.
The first thing you can do is to stop smoking and vaping.
Try to reach and maintain a healthy weight. People with obesity have less space for lung expansion.
Exercise regularly. Check with your provider before you start exercising.
Eat healthy foods in moderation.
Stay hydrated, unless your provider gives you a limit on how much liquid you can drink.
Your brain is a major organ that regulates everything you do and who you are. This includes your movement, memory, emotions, thoughts, body temperature, breathing, hunger and more. There are a lot of complex parts of your brain that work together to help you function. Since your brain is always working, conditions are common.
Contents
Overview
Function
Anatomy
Conditions and Disorders
Overview
The layers, lobes and main parts of the human brain
The main parts of the human brain, including the layers and lobes.
What is the brain?
Your brain is a complex organ that regulates everything you do, like your senses, emotions, thoughts, memories, movement and behavior. It even controls body processes you don’t have to think about, like your breathing, body temperature and your heart rate. Everything that makes you uniquely individual comes from your bra
Your brain is made up of many different parts, each with its own job. But they all work very closely together. This system works by sending and receiving information between nerve cells (neurons) that make up your brain. It then translates this information into a language that your body can understand, so you can function as expected.
Your brain connects to your spinal cord. They make up your central nervous system (CNS).
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Function
What is the brain’s function?
Your brain is responsible for the following functions:
Automatic behaviors like breathing, heart rate, sleep and temperature control
Fight-or-flight response (stress response)
Keeping your organs working as expected
Memories and emotions
Movements (motor function), balance and coordination
Sensory processing (vision, hearing, smell, touch and taste)
Speech and language
Thoughts and decision-making
Your brain’s job is to send, receive and process signals sent through your central nervous system. These signals are messages that carry information from your five senses (sight, smell, sound, touch and taste). Your brain also identifies signals from inside of your body, like pain, temperature or how fast your heart is beating. It interprets or translates this information so you can understand and associate meaning with what goes on around you.
When does the brain stop developing?
The majority of your brain development happens between birth and your teenage years. But your brain needs time to mature. It’ll continue this process through your mid to late 20s. One of the last parts of your brain to develop and mature is the prefrontal cortex. This part of your brain helps you make decisions, prioritize tasks and regulate your emotions.
Anatomy
What are the main parts of the brain?
Your brain has three main parts:
Cerebrum. Your cerebrum interprets your five senses. It regulates conscious actions that require thinking, like your speech, memory, behavior, personality, movement, reasoning and judgment. It’s the largest part of your brain, divided into two halves: the left and right hemispheres. The two halves connect by nerve fiber bundles (white matter) called the corpus callosum.
Cerebellum. Your cerebellum maintains your balance, posture, coordination and fine motor skills. It’s a small, half-circle shape that’s located in the back of your brain around your brainstem.
Brainstem. Your brainstem regulates many automatic body functions. You don’t consciously control these functions, like your heart rate, breathing, sleep and wake cycles, and swallowing. Your brainstem is in the lower part of your brain. It connects the rest of your brain to your spinal cord.
A bony structure called your cranium surrounds your brain. Your cranium is part of your skull. Your brain floats in a liquid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). All the bones of your skull and CSF protect your brain from injury.
Between your brain and skull, you have three layers of tissue called the meninges:
Dura mater. The outermost layer lines your cranial vault.
Arachnoid membrane. The middle layer has a thin layer of tissue that covers your entire brain.
Pia mater. The innermost layer contains blood vessels that run into your brain’s surface.
Your brain has 12 cranial nerves. Nerves carry messages by sending electrical impulses back and forth between your brain, organs and muscles. Information from your body passes through your nerves to your brain and from your brain to the rest of your body.
Other important parts of your brain include:
Amygdala. Part of your limbic system and located in your temporal lobes, it helps you regulate your emotions, especially fear.
Basal ganglia. Deep within your cerebrum, these structures regulate your movement.
Hippocampus. This small structure in your temporal lobes is responsible for your memory and learning.
Thalamus. Sitting above your brainstem, this is the switchboard to your central nervous system. It relays sensory information to your cerebral cortex from the rest of your body.
Hypothalamus. Just below your thalamus, the hypothalamus regulates hormones and autonomic functions like hunger and thirst.
Pituitary gland. Below the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland regulates hormone activity.
Pineal gland. In the back of your corpus callosum, this gland regulates your sleep and wake cycle
What are the lobes that make up your brain?
Your cerebrum is split into hemispheres (sides). On each side, there are four lobes (sections) with different functions:
Frontal lobes. Located in the front part of your brain, behind your forehead, this is the largest lobe. It controls voluntary movements, social understanding, thinking and learning, and more.
Occipital lobes. Located in the back of your brain, this lobe allows you to process and interpret visual information from your eyes.
Parietal lobes. Near the upper back of your brain, this lobe receives and interprets signals from other parts of your brain so you can understand your environment and the state of your body.
Temporal lobes. On the side of your head near your ears, this lobe helps you retrieve memories and understand language and emotions.
What is the gray and white matter in the brain?
There are two tissues in your brain known as gray and white matter. They differ based on their color and function:
Gray matter is the darker, outside section (the cerebral cortex) that helps you with your day-to-day functioning., like muscle control, using your senses, remembering something, experiencing emotions and speech.
White matter is the lighter section below the gray matter that sends signals to different parts of your central nervous system to help you function.
You can compare gray matter to a computer. White matter is the cables for the computer.
How many brain cells does a human have?
There are close to 86 billion nerve cells (neurons) in the human brain and an equal amount of non-neuronal glial cells:
Neurons send and receive electric and chemical signals.
Glial cells help maintain your brain, form myelin (a fatty, protective substance found in white matter) and provide nutrition to your brain.
How much does the human brain weigh?
An adult human brain weighs, on average, about 3 pounds. When you’re born, it weighs about 1 pound and grows to about 2 pounds through childhood. The weight of your brain varies based on your sex and body size.
Conditions and Disorders
What conditions can affect the brain?
Since your brain is responsible for almost everything you do, brain conditions are common. There are many types of brain disorders and conditions that vary in severity. Some of the most common include:
Alzheimer’s disease and dementia
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
Brain bleed
Brain tumor
Concussion
Depression
Epilepsy
Multiple sclerosis
Parkinson’s disease
Stroke
Traumatic brain injury
Depending on the type of condition, you may be born with it or acquire it. Signs and symptoms vary and could affect your mental health, movement, memory, thinking and speech, among other important functions.
A note from Cleveland Clinic
Your brain has a really important job, and it often goes unnoticed. Right now, you’re using your brain to read this text. At the same time, your brain is running your body’s motor to keep you breathing, make sure your eyes are blinking and remind you that it’s time for a snack.
Since your brain is constantly working to keep your entire body functioning, it’s important that you take steps to keep it healthy. You can do this by meeting up with friends and socializing, completing puzzles or meditating to reduce stress. The usual habits like eating nutritious meals and getting regular exercise and enough sleep are helpful, too.
The functions of the heart are to pump blood and oxygen around the body and deliver waste products (carbon dioxide) back to the lungs to be removed.
The heart consists of four chambers, each separated by valves which direct the flow of blood.
Conditions affecting the heart include coronary heart disease, angina, heart attack, heart failure, heart valve diseases, abnormal heart rhythms including atrial fibrillation, heart inflammation, congenital heart disease (present from birth) and rheumatic heart disease.
On this page
The four chambers of the heart
The heartbeat
Blood vessels of the heart
Common heart conditions
Symptoms of heart disease
Where to get help
Your heart is a vital organ. It is a muscle that pumps blood to all parts of your body. The blood pumped by your heart provides your body with the oxygen and nutrients it needs to function.
Your heart is about the size of a clenched fist, and weighs between 300 and 450 g. It lies in the middle of your chest, behind and slightly to the left of your breastbone.
If you are of average body weight and size, your body contains about five litres of blood, all of which passes through your heart every minute or so. When necessary, such as during exercise, your heart can pump up to four times that amount per minute.
The four chambers of the heart
Your heart has a right and left side separated by a wall called the septum. On each side of the wall, there is a small collecting chamber called an ‘atrium’, which leads into a large pumping chamber called a ‘ventricle’. There are four chambers: the left atrium and right atrium (upper chambers), and the left ventricle and right ventricle (lower chambers).
The right side of your heart collects blood on its return from the rest of your body. The blood entering the right side of your heart is low in oxygen. Your heart pumps the blood from the right side of your heart to your lungs so it can receive more oxygen.
Once it has received oxygen, the blood returns directly to the left side of your heart, which then pumps it out again to all parts of your body through an artery called the aorta.
Blood pressure refers to the amount of force the pumping blood exerts on arterial walls.
The heartbeat
Each atrium is connected to its ventricle by a one-way valve. The valve on the right side of the heart is called the tricuspid valve, while the valve on the left side is called the mitral valve.
The familiar 'lub-dub' sound of the heartbeat is caused by the rhythmic closing of the heart valves as blood is pumped in and out of the chambers.
The heart rate is regulated by a special cluster of cells in the right atrium, called the sinus node. The sinus node prompts the upper chambers to contract first. Then, an electrical impulse is sent to a second cluster of cells (the atrioventricular node), which is found between the upper and lower chambers of the heart. The electrical impulse causes the lower chambers to contract. At rest, your heart beats approximately 60 to 100 times a minute.
Blood vessels of the heart
The blood vessels of the heart include:
coronary arteries – like any other organ or tissue, the heart needs oxygen. The coronary arteries sit on the surface of the heart and supply the heart muscle with blood and oxygen
aorta – this is the largest artery in the body. Oxygen-rich blood is pumped into the aorta from the left ventricle. The aorta divides into various branches that deliver blood all around the body
pulmonary arteries – blood low in oxygen is pumped by the right ventricle into the pulmonary arteries that link to the lungs
pulmonary veins – the pulmonary veins return oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart
venae cavae –blood low in oxygen is delivered to the right atrium by two veins. One (superior vena cava) carries blood from the head and upper torso, while the other (inferior vena cava) carries blood from the lower body
Common heart conditions
There are many different types of heart conditions. Some common heart conditions include:
coronary heart disease – coronary heart disease happens when the coronary arteries supplying blood to the heart muscle become blocked or narrowed by a build-up of fatty deposits (plaque). Coronary heart disease can cause angina and heart attacks.
angina – a type of chest pain caused by a build-up of plaque in the coronary arteries. Part of the heart muscle may not receive enough blood and oxygen. This causes chest tightness, discomfort or pain.. Pain or discomfort may also be felt in the arms, neck, jaw, shoulders or back
heart attack – happens when something, usually a blood clot, cuts off the flow of blood to the heart. Without oxygen and nutrients, the heart muscle begins to die. A heart attack may not be fatal, especially if you receive immediate medical treatment, but it can still cause lasting damage to the heart.
heart failure – a condition where the heart is not able to pump blood and oxygen around the body as well as it should
abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias) - a range of conditions where there is a fault in the heart’s electrical system, which affects your heart’s pumping rhythm. Atrial fibrillation is the most common type of abnormal heart rhythm, where the heart beats irregularly and often fast
heart valve disease – when the heart valve or valves don’t open or close properly. Damage to the heart valves can make it harder for the heart to pump blood around the body
congenital heart disease – problems with the heart or blood vessels that you are born with. Problems include the blockage of blood flow inside the heart or blood vessels, abnormal flow of blood within the heart, or the heart may not have developed properly.
heart inflammation – includes pericarditis (inflammation of the outer lining of the heart) andand myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle)
rheumatic heart disease - damage to the valves in the heart that develops after acute rheumatic fever. Rheumatic heart disease affects more Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander Peoples, Maori and Pacific Islander Peoples, and those who have migrated to Australia from low to middle income countries where this disease remains common.
Symptoms of heart disease
‘Heart disease’ is a broad term for different conditions affecting the heart.
Different heart conditions can have different symptoms.
It’s important to be aware of the following symptoms, which can be a warning sign of a medical emergency, including a heart attack:
Chest discomfort or pain. This can feel like uncomfortable pressure, aching, numbness, squeezing, fullness or pain in your chest. This discomfort can spread to your arms, neck, jaw, shoulders or back. It can last for several minutes or come and go.
Shortness of breath or difficulty breathing (with or without chest discomfort)
Racing heart or a feeling of your heart pounding or fluttering in your chest (palpitations)
Light headedness, dizziness, feeling faint
Feeling anxious
Nausea, indigestion, vomiting
Sweating or a cold sweat.
If your symptoms last more than 10 minutes, are severe or getting worse, call triple zero (000) immediately for an ambulance.
Where to get help
In an emergency, call triple zero (000) for an ambulance. Don’t drive yourself to hospital.
Your GP (doctor).
Cardiologist.
References
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Related information
Acute rheumatic fever (ARF) and rheumatic heart disease (RHD)
Stopping episodes of recurrent ARF can prevent rheumatic heart disease (RHD).
Amyloidosis
A person with amyloidosis produces aggregates of insoluble protein that cannot be eliminated from the body.
Anaemia
When a person is anaemic, the red blood cells have to work harder to get oxygen around the body.
Aneurysm
An aneurysm may have no symptoms until it is either very large or it ruptures.
Aortic stenosis
Aortic stenosis may be congenital (present from before birth), but is often diagnosed during teenage years.
Many tests used for educational assessments are not standardised or prepared not by undergoing the systematic test development procedure and applying psychometric principles. Such test does not possess the good qualities and fails to perform their functions and purpose.
THE MAJOR ISSUES ARE
COMMERCIALISATION ASSESSMENT
.Commercialisation of education is an ongoing process in our contemporary society.
It creates a lot of issues along with its positive aspects.
● Readymade assessment tools/study materials are easily available in the market and most of these tools are not up to the quality.The respective agencies prepared the materials without following any principles.
● Normally teachers as well as students depend on this type of tools and materials.This often affects the standard of classroom assessment.
•Assigning various agencies for arranging different examinations.
COMMERCIALISATION OF EDUCATION
The commercialization of education has been fairly a recent trend in India that stems from the educational reform in the country over the last two decades. It mainly materializes itself in mushrooming private schools, public schools and private universities and at the high education level .In a sense; it has added a financial element to the qualification of attending private schools and public and private universities. Undoubtedly, it affects million families. As a result, it also changes the traditional concepts of education in Indian society including the student teacher relationship, education and attitude towards gaining knowledge .Education was something that was always driven by thought in the former days. Meaning of commercialization of education: Generally commercialization is a process by which a new product or service is introduced into the general market. Commercialization of education is trend of decreasing emphasis on the humanities and increasing attention to the demand of the student s. It is a tendency which gives emphasis on to make education profitable as well as business oriented .On the other way commercialization of education means that schools are competing more than ever for whole can provide quality education at a reasonable price. Like any other market, this healthy competition is benefit to the buyer or in this case the student. The enmeshing of private schools, public schools and the costs associated with each means that students of all steps of life will start attending both forms of education. Since commercialized education means that students are paying more for education than the government invests. It is obvious that the direction of education will lie more in the hands of students and Teachers.
Commercialization has a positive impact on education. Some of the important aspects are as follows:
1. employment opportunity: Commercialization of education provides employment opportunity. It provides job opportunity as well as hundred percent job guarantees to the students. Many private institutions offer various job oriented job oriented courses, various degrees, diplomas, certificate course etc.
2)Economic Development: Commercialization is the process of economic development. Commercialization in education helps in increasing the rate of literacy, Gross Domestic Product, Gross national Income, per capital income.
3)To Face the Global Challenges: Commercialization of education helps to face the global challenges of the world. The global challenges are as modernization, industrialization, privatization, globalization, information and communication Technology, Emergence of International knowledge Network, Role of English language etc. Commercialization of education helps the students in acquiring appropriate knowledge about the advantages in technology. Emergence of International knowledge Network, Role of English language etc.
4) Personality development: commercialization of education helps in the personality development of the students. The commercialization of education provides formal education to students. For the personality development of the students they provide moral education which included the development commercialization skill, soft skill, how to maintain their physical health, to how face interview, how to with entrance examination how to adjust with the society etc.
5) Quality of education:
Commercialization of education give emphasis on quality education. The concept of quality education is broader term which indicates the quality of the learner, quality of the learning environment, quality content, quality process and quality outcomes.
6)Increased private Institutions:
Duo to the presence of commercialization of education a number of private institutions were increased in various region. When the private institutions increased day by day the tendency of commercialization also increased, commercialization can’t take place without privatization. The various private institutions provide technical, medical, professional courses for the benefit of the students, along with the institution also provide proper infrastructure facility.
7)Social development:
Commercialization of education give emphasis on the social development. For the development of the nation, social development is very necessary. In the private institution the students were provide the social education how to adjust with the society, knowledge of the various culture, knowledge about social interaction, provide knowledge to the students to preserve their culture, knowledge of the norms, social customs etc. So the commercialization’s in education provide appropriate opportunity to the students to establish a relationship with the culture traditions, norms etc. Of the society.
8.) Fulfillment of expectation of parents: Commercialization of education helps in fulfillment of expectation of parents by providing education in the private institutions. Every parents tries their level best to provide quality education to his ward and to fulfill their dreams, they spend a lump sum amount of money so that their ward is able to study in the best educational institution.
9). Development of professional efficiency of teachers: Commercialization of education helps give attention on the development of professional efficiency of teachers. In the private institutions they appointed highly qualified teachers, smart teachers, and also provide proper training to the teachers for their professional development.
10). Professional and vocational development of learners:
commercialization of education gives very much emphasis on professional as well as vocational development of the students. The advertisement made by the school and colleges such as coaching, diploma degree, vocational training, various professional and skill development courses etc. which help the student to get a background about these courses, and provide opportunity to develop their academic career.
Demerits of commercialization of education:
Commercialization of education also has some demerits. Some of them pointed as
More emphasis on marks: commercializations of education give more emphasis on marks. It not tries to fulfill all round development of students. The students were forced to get more and more marks in each subject and only give importance on intellectual activities.
2)Unable to maintain the principle of quality: Commercialization of education is unable to maintain the principle of equality. In the society there are three types of people were lived upper class people, middle class people and lower people. For the impact of commercialization of education system the poor people as well as the weaker section of the society not be able to get education due to high rate of fees in admitting the students.
3)Profit oriented:
Commercialization of education always give emphasis on profit. It makes education as a business. People make rise about it but day by day it increased rapidly. From these sources they earn money from the students only for their benefit.
4. Costly)
The impact of commercialization in education which make education very costlier. In the private institutions the admission fees, monthly fees, development fees, semester fees etc. Were very high. It is not possible to send their children in that type of institution. They demand high amount of donation in admitting the student in various course. But the same type of education was given in the government school.
5. Materialistic outlook): Commercialization of education develops the materialistic outlook among the students. The student have the attitude that to take proper education and to get a good job. They pay money and take education. The student only thinks of himself and not for the development of his region, society and for the nation. They want to spend an luxuries life.
6. Over burden of Teachers: )The impact of commercialization on education also related with the over burden of the teachers. In the private institutions, for the commercial benefit they pressure on the teachers and give over burden of work for the whole day. They were bound to do the activities provided by the authority. They were busy to take the class, examination, remedial class, tutorial class, to check the examination copy etc.
7.)Mechanical Process:
Commercialization’s of education make the education process as mechanical. It not follows the psychological principle. The children have given over burden curriculum. The teachers were engaged at all levels, they take all class, including remedial class, tutorial class, group discussions, seminars etc.
8)Less salary to teachers:
The commercialization of education impact on the salary of the teachers. In the private institutions the teachers were provide over burden work pressure. They don’t have time, any time they are busy. The authority observed the teachers.They not have the leisure time for mental releas. The main aim is the profit of themselves so that they not paid the teachers sufficiently.
9. Poor service condition of teachers: - Commercialization of education only gives emphasis on profit of authorities who open the institution, but not give attention on the profit of the teachers. They provide less salary to the teachers but teachers have given over burden of work.
10. Over burden curriculum: - Due to the impact of commercialization of education of educational institutions become a business enterprise. The curriculum of the institution is very is spread. It includes various additional subjects in general curriculum. The small children are suffering from it. The books provided by the institutions are very expensive and in the lower stage which are not psychologically effects
POOR TEST QUALITY
The class test conducted by teachers usually does not maintain the required quality
● Most of the teachers are not well versed with the techniques of preparing assessment tools
● Assessment with poor quality tests will result in bad than good
● Most of the test check only rote memorisation and fail to test higher order skills as reasoning ,analysis ,creativity and judgement.
Tests may not show sufficient evidence of validity and reliability.
Many tests used for educational assessments are not standardised or prepared not by undergoing the systematic test development procedure and applying psychometric principles. Such test does not possess the good qualities and fails to perform their functions and purpose. For example, the question papers used by many universities are criticized on the ground that they are inferior in quality and they fail to perform their educational functions of assessing and evaluating. One of the reason for the poor quality of test are that the construction of good quality test require expertise, it is time consuming process and has to undergo a series of sequential procedures.
Validity
Validity is arguably the most important criteria for the quality of a test. The term validity refers to whether or not the test measures what it claims to measure. On a test with high validity the items will be closely linked to the test's intended focus. For many certification and licensure tests this means that the items will be highly related to a specific job or occupation. If a test has poor validity then it does not measure the job-related content and competencies it ought to. When this is the case, there is no justification for using the test results for their intended purpose. There are several ways to estimate the validity of a test including content validity, concurrent validity, and predictive validity. The face validity of a test is sometimes also mentioned.
Reliability
Reliability is one of the most important elements of test quality. It has to do with the consistency, or reproducibility, or an examinee's performance on the test. For example, if you were to administer a test with high reliability to an examinee on two occasions, you would be very likely to reach the same conclusions about the examinee's performance both times. A test with poor reliability, on the other hand, might result in very different scores for the examinee across the two test administrations. If a test yields inconsistent scores, it may be unethical to take any substantive actions on the basis of the test. There are several methods for computing test reliability including test-retest reliability, parallel forms reliability, decision consistency, internal consistency, and interrater reliability. For many criterion-referenced tests decision consistency is often an appropriate choice.
Fairness
The fairness of an exam refers to its freedom from any kind of bias. The exam should be appropriate for all qualified examinees irrespective of race, religion, gender, or age. The test should not disadvantage any examinee, or group of examinees, on any basis other than the examinee's lack of the knowledge and skills the test is intended to measure. Item writers should address the goal of fairness as they undertake the task of writing items. In addition, the items should also be reviewed for potential fairness problems during the item review phase. Any items that are identified as displaying potential bias or lack of fairness should then be revised or dropped from further consideration.
Legal Defensibility
For an exam program to have legal defensibility there must be evidence as to the test’s quality that would stand up in a court challenge. You will need to be able to provide evidence that sound, professionally recommended guidelines were followed throughout the design, development, and maintenance of the exam program. Professional guidelines for testing are offered by the American Psychological Association (APA), American Educational Research Association (AERA), and the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME). Studies should also be conducted to investigate and confirm that the test has reasonable degrees of validity, reliability, and fairness. Among the most important elements that courts look for are a well-conducted job analysis and strong content validity (that is, the items need to have a high degree of “job relatedness”). Finally, good documentation of the design, development, and analysis of the exam program should be collected and maintained.
DOMAIN DEPENDENCY
domain dependency
● Domain can be defined an area of control or sphere.
● Conceptualise and instantiate formative assessment within the contexts of specific domain is the possible approach to deal with the domain dependency issue.
● Assessment requires the interaction of general principles, strategies and techniques with reasonable deep understanding of various domains.
● A teacher who has weak domain understanding is less likely to know what questions to ask students, what to look for in their performance, what inference to make from that performance about students knowledge and what actions to take to adjust instruction.
Issue Cognitive scientific research reveals that general and specialised knowledge function in close partnership (Perkins and Salomon 1989). To be maximally effective, assessment requires the interaction of general principles, strategies, and techniques with reasonably deep cognitive domain understanding. That deep cognitive domain understanding includes the processes, strategies and knowledge important for proficiency in a domain, the habits of mind that characterise the community of practice in that domain, and the features of tasks that engage those elements. It also includes those specialised aspects of domain knowledge central to helping students learn (Ball, Thames, and Phelps 2008; Shulman 1986). A teacher who has weak cognitive domain understanding is less likely to know what questions to ask of students, what to look for in their performance, what inferences to make from that performance about student knowledge, and what actions to take to adjust instruction. The intellectual tools and instrumentation given to teachers may differ significantly from one domain to the next because they ought to be specifically tuned for the domain in question (Hodgen and Marshall 2005). A possible approach to dealing with the domain dependency issue is to conceptualise and instantiate formative assessment within the context of specific domains. Any such instantiation would include a cognitive-domain model to guide the substance of formative assessment, learning progressions to indicate steps toward mastery on key components of the cognitive domain model, tasks to provide evidence about student standing with respect to those learning progressions, techniques fit to that substantive area, and a process for teachers to implement that is closely linked to the preceding materials.
MEASUREMENT ISSUES
● Measurement involves for activities designing opportunities to gather evidence, collecting evidence, interpreting it and acting on interpretations.
● Formative assessment is not the elicitation of evidences but includes making inferences from that evidence.
● Formative assessment is an inferential process.
● The measurement issues lies in the interpretation of evidence for learner performance and achievement.
● Formative inferences are uncertain and also subjected to unintentional biases.
So we should try to decreases uncertainty and bias by considering data from multiple sources, occasions and contexts.
Educational measurement involves four activities of Assessment
(i) designing opportunities to gather evidence,
(ii) collecting evidence,
(iii) interpreting it, and
(iv) acting on interpretations.
Assessment is not simply the elicitation of evidence but also includes making inferences from that evidence. Assessment is an inferential process because others cannot know with certainty what understanding exists inside a student‟s head. They can only make conjectures or hypotheses based on what we observe from such things as class participation, class work, homework, and test performance. The measurement issue lies in the interpretation of evidences for learner performance and achievement. For example a weak performance in mathematics may be due to linguistic deficiency, but the same would wrongly interpret as underachievement in mathematics. This misinterpretation would lead to unnecessary course of action.
SYSTEM ISSUES
*Assessment components can be considered internally coherent when they are mutually supportive
● That's formative and summative assessment need to be aligned with one another.
● Such components must also be externally coherent in the sends that formative and summative assessment are consistent with accepted theories of learning as well as with socially valued learning outcomes.
● In case if these two type are not coherently present, the system will either work against one another or work against larger societal goals.
● But today for practical reasons summative tests are relatively short and predominantly take the multiple choice or short answer formats.
● Such tests will measure a subject of the intended curriculum, omitting important processes, strategies and knowledge that cannot be assessed efficiently in that fashion.
System Issues It refers to the fact that assessment exists within a larger educational context. If that context is to function effectively in educating students, its components must be coherent. Gitomer and Duschl (2007) describe two types of coherence, internal and external. Assessment components can be considered internally coherent when they are mutually supportive; in other words, formative and summative assessments need to be aligned with one another. Those components must also be externally coherent in the sense that formative and summative assessments are consistent with accepted theories of learning, as well as with socially valued learning outcomes. External coherence, of course, also applies to other system components like the educational ideology, policies and programmes. In any event, if these two types of coherence are not present, components of the system will either work against one another or work against larger societal goals. Thus, the effectiveness of assessment will be limited by the nature of the larger system in which it is embedded and, particularly, by the content, format, and design. Ultimately, we have to change the system, not just the approach to assessment, if we want to have maximum impact on learning and instruction. Changing the system is a very big challenge indeed.
OTHER ISSUES OF CLASS ROOM ASSESSMENT
1. Bias in Assessment:
Unfair evaluation due to cultural, gender, or socioeconomic biases.
Blatchford and Cline (1992) suggest that the assessment process should operate without bias with respect to gender, social class, ethnicity, language use and religion. However, many researchers have demonstrated the existence of bias in educational assessment. Many researchers have argued that most assessments are culture biased and discriminates against certain ethnic groups. Anastasi (1972) argues that it is not productive to attempt to develop tests that are
„culture-free‟ (free from cultural influences) and, instead, there should be efforts to develop tests that are „culture-fair‟ (common to different cultures).
2. Inadequate Feedback:
* Lack of constructive feedback for students to understand and improve.
3. Overemphasis on Testing:
Too much focus on exams rather than a holistic understanding of the subject.
4. Standardization Challenges:
Difficulty in creating fair assessments that cater to diverse learning styles.
5. Assessment Design Flaws:
Poorly designed assessments may not accurately measure student knowledge.
STEPS OF DESIGNING ASSESSMENT
6. Cheating and Plagiarism:
Addressing and preventing academic dishonesty in assessments.
7. Limited Range of Assessment Types:
Overreliance on one type of assessment may not capture diverse skills.
8. Time Constraints:
Assessments that are too time-consuming can cause stress and hinder learning.
Time constraint: The time constraint refers to the project's schedule for completion, including the deadlines for each phase of the project, as well as the date for rollout of the final deliverable.
9. Inadequate Technology Integration:
Challenges in effectively incorporating technology for assessment purposes.
10. Inconsistency in Grading:
Varied interpretation and application of grading criteria among educators.
11. Lack of Student Engagement:
Assessments that fail to captivate students' interest may lead to disengagement.
12. Inequality in Resources:
Disparities in access to resources for preparation or completion of assessments.
Educational inequality is the unequal distribution of academic resources, including but not limited to school funding, qualified and experienced teachers, books, and technologies, to socially excluded communities. These communities tend to be historically disadvantaged and oppressed.
13. Assessment Anxiety:
** High-stakes assessments may contribute to anxiety and negatively impact performance.
14. Insufficient Training for Educators:
Teachers may lack training in creating and administering effective assessments.
15. Inclusion of Multiple Intelligences:
Assessments should recognize and accommodate different types of intelligence.
Addressing these issues can contribute to a more effective and equitable classroom assessment environment.
REFORMS IN ASSESSMENT REPORTS
● Assessment becomes an integral part of the educative process.
● According to NCF 2005 the purpose of assessment is necessarily to improve the teaching learning process and materials, and to be able to review the objectives that have been identified for different school stages by gauging the extent to which the capabilities of learner have been developed.
● Traditionally, assessment used to be conducted at the end of the teaching learning process and served only the summative functions.
● But now, with advent of modern theories of learning and instruction, the process of assessment has acquired new dimensions with an interventionist role in the improvement of instructional process.
Advances in understanding of human learning have highlighted inconsistencies between many traditional assessment and reporting practices and what is now known about the general conditions that promote successful learning. There has been growing recognition within the education communities of the need to develop assessment methods for a broader range of skills and attributes necessary for life in the 21st century, including the ability to work in teams, to innovate, to solve complex problems, and to analyse and evaluate diverse information. Advances in technology have raised the possibility and challenge of fundamentally transforming assessment processes and information in the future. The dichotomies like quantitative versus qualitative; formative versus summative; norm-referenced versus criterion/standards-referenced; tests versus assessments; internal versus external; continuous versus terminal; measurement versus judgement; assessment of learning versus assessment for learning became default basis for conceptualising and describing the field of assessment. The position paper on examination reforms (NCERT, 2006) states the need for examination reforms in India as follows.
(i) Indian school board exams are largely inappropriate for the „knowledge society‟ of the 21st century and its need for innovative problem-solvers.
(ii) They do not serve the needs of social justice.
(iii) The quality of question papers is low. They usually call for rote memorization and fail to test higher-order skills like reasoning and analysis, let alone lateral thinking, creativity, and judgment.
(iv) They are inflexible. Based on a „one-size-fits-all‟ principle, they make no allowance for different types of learners and learning environments.
(v) Because they induce an inordinate level of anxiety and stress. In addition to widespread trauma, mass media and psychological counselors report a growing number of exam-induced suicides and nervous breakdowns.
(vi) Because there is often a lack of full disclosure and transparency in grading and mark/grade reporting.
vii) Because there is need for a functional and reliable system of school-based evaluation. The focus group (NCERT, 2006) suggests the following reforms in assessment practice.
(i) There should be more varied modes of assessment, including oral testing and group work evaluation.
(ii) Do not expect everything of everybody in every subject.
(iii) Flexibility in when exams are taken Enhanced reporting of performance Some important reforms that have recently taken place in the field of assessment have been discussed below.
REFORMS IN ASSESSMENT
OPEN BOOK ASSESSMENT
● Open book allow students to takes notes at the time of examination.
● It aims at developing the skills of critical and creative thinking.
● Open book assessments often comprises task based on a problem or argument to which the student is ten required to respond employing their knowledge of the subject and making use of the reference material as appropriate.
Types of Open Book Assessment
Restricted type Students are permitted to bring one or more specific documents approved by the course instructor.
Unrestricted type
Students are free to bring whatever they like.
Merits of the OBA
● To reduce the tendency of rote memory.
● To develop higher order thinking.
● To develop better understanding of subject matter.
● To develop positive attitudes towards examination.
● To reduce stress and fear.
● To eliminate the tendency of copying.
● Development of self study habits.
● Encourages creative abilities.
● To develop regular study habits among students.
Demerits of the OBA
● Time consuming.
● Difficult to ensure equitable resources.
● More space is needed during the examination.
● Less important to rote memorisation.
● Non availability of of infrastructure facilities.
● There is a possibility of consultation among examinees in the hall.
Open Book System Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
Students are not required to engage in parroting of concepts, if they understand the concept they would answer correctly. This will remove tension of examination which has become integral part of normal education system. Those students who are intelligent but don’t like to put in extra hard work in memorizing the concepts, facts and other data would enjoy this system. It is highly likely that more and more students would continue their education as the passing percentage would go up.
Disadvantages
The students would stop studying and simply copy from the open book provided at the examination hall. It would be really tough to control the secret discussions between students who would cheat their way to success. The number of pass outs would increase and the students who pass out the exam of 12th board through open book would demand similar type of arrangement in higher studies and later on even in jobs they would demand the provision of open book. Simply imagine a surgeon who turns the pages of the book while performing surgery on his patients. Board examinations would lose their importance and no one would like to assess the ability and competence of an individual on the basis of marks or grade of the CBSE board.
Open book examinations
An open book examination is one in which examinees are allowed to consult their class notes, textbooks, and other approved material while answering questions. The traditional approach to education treats the information content of a subject to be the most important. The teacher‟s role is viewed as facilitating the transfer of information from the textbook to the students‟ minds. What the student is expected to do is to understand this information, retain it, and retrieve it during the final examination. Most conventional examinations test how much information the students have been able to store in their minds. In order to cope with this demand, students memorise the information in class notes and textbooks, and transfer it to answer books during the examination. In this type of examination, success depends on the quantity of information memorised, and the efficiency with which it is reproduced. But the alternative approach considers true teaching is teaching students how to learn. That is, teaching should equip students with the ability to acquire knowledge, to modify existing knowledge on the basis of new experience, to build new knowledge, and to apply available knowledge to solve problems and make intelligent decisions.
ONLINE ASSESSMENT
● It is conducting examination on the basis of internet.
● It is a new technique of conducting assessment or examination by using internet without face to face contact between the examinee and the examiner.
Merits of the Online Assessment
● Scoring can be done done speedily.
● Easier,time saving and comfortable.
● Reduces the chance of copying.
● Reduces the subjectivity.
● Provide immediate feedback to students.
● Less expensive.
● Quick evaluation of performance.
● It ensures reliability,validity, and objectivity.
Demerits of the Online Assessment
● Good broadband facility is required.
● Important is only given to cognitive ability.
● Technical knowledge is required.
● Risk of losing what has been recorded.
● Availability of internet facilities.
● Limited time and less freedom for selecting sections.
● Not suitable for the specific needs of students.
Online Examinations
Online examination or online assessment is a web based interactive, independent and intelligent examination platform for students. It is an assessment that is accessed on a computer via the internet or a similar computer network. The assessment or test is read online and the responses are given online by selecting or checking a choice by clicking the mouse, typing a response, or perhaps even touching the computer screen with a special “pen” or speaking a response aloud using voice recognition technology. Online assessment may also be a vehicle for submitting a portfolio of student performances or completed assignments for the teacher to evaluate.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ONLINE TESTING
Advantages
• Although creating online tests is labor-intensive, once a test is developed in Blackboard, it is relatively easy to transfer it and repeat it in other Blackboard courses.
• Blackboard allows for a high degree of customization in the feedback students get in response to each answer that they submit. As an instructor, you could leverage this tool as another way to engage with students about course content.
• Online tests are asynchronous and can be accessed on a variety of devices. If students buy the Blackboard mobile app, they can even take a test from their smartphone. The flexibility offered by online testing can be a great solution for learners with busy schedules or when unexpected class cancellations occur.
• While it is hard to prevent cheating, Blackboard tests do offer many settings for instructors to randomize questions, impose test taking time limits, and restrict attempts. However, make sure to explain all the settings to students before they begin taking the test.
• Testing in an online environment can be a lot more interactive than traditional paper and pen tests. Instructors can embed multimedia in test questions to provide more engaging assessments. For example, students may be asked to identify a particular area of an image by directly clicking on it instead of having to answer in written form.
• In all likelihood, students are already using online tools as study aids for their courses. Instructors can better serve students by providing them with custom made study aids like online practice tests, rather than entrusting students to rely on outside resources that may not be valid sources of information.
• For objective question types like multiple-choice, Blackboard will automatically grade student responses, saving time for the instructor and providing more immediate feedback to students.
•Online tests can be more accessible to students with disabilities who have assistive technologies built into their computers than hand written tests are.
Disadvantages
• Unlike collaborative, project-based online assessments, multiple choice or essay tests online can feel even more impersonal than they do in the classroom which may contribute to an online student’s sense of isolation.
• While it is tempting to use the multiple choice quizzes provided by the textbook publisher, these types of assessments lack creativity and may not be suitable to the specific needs of your learners.
• Creating online tests in Blackboard can be very tedious and time-consuming. It is not as easy as simply uploading the Microsoft Word version of your test. Instead, instructors have to copy and paste each question’s text and each individual answer’s text into Blackboard, mark the correct answers, and customize feedback and setting options.
• Some students will not be accustomed to taking quizzes and tests online, and they may need some hand-holding early in the semester before they feel comfortable with the technology.
• Cheating on an online test is as simple as opening up another window and searching Google or asking a classmate for the correct answers. Furthermore, cheating on online multiple choice tests is near impossible for the instructor to prevent or catch.
• Though the technology that makes online tests possible is a great thing, it can also cause problems. If you do online testing, have a back-up plan for students who have technical difficulties and be ready to field some frantic emails from students who have poor internet connections or faulty computers.
ON DEMAND ASSESSMENT
● Assessment conducted on the demand of the learner.
● It can be administered to a single student and or a whole class.
● It enables to conduct assessment in a reliable and standardised manner.
● Give preference to students examination.
● Can written examination when the student is think he is written all thing.
● No limitation to attend.
Types of On Demand Assessment
1)Computer adaptive test
● They deliver sets of questions to students that vary according to student ability.
● The students give responses.
● Depending on the responses provided in previous questions, the system presents progressively easier or more difficult questions to the student.
2.) Linear test
● Students get a fixed set of questions.
● The same questions are given to all students in the same order during the test.
● Their responses are saved and stored by the computer and teachers are able to view and analyse the results of a student, class or question level.
Merits of the On Demand Assessment
● Attend exam he or she is ready.
● Data choose by learner.
● Loss of threat of failure.
● Provide immediate feedback.
● It is more respect individuality of learner.
● Tension, frustration,anxiety etc can be removed.
● It is time saving.
● Remove malpractice.
Demerits of On Demand Assessment
● Unfair checking of exams.
● Very slow services.
● Much freedom is provided to students.
● The system may fail to store the result.
On Demand Examination (ODE)
Where assessment takes place when the learner considers himself/herself are ready to take the same, such examination are called on demand examination. Under ODE, a unique question paper having defined number of items is generated randomly by the computer (on the day of the examination) out of the already developed question bank on the basis of question paper design and the blueprint of the subject. The question paper is unique for each student.
IBA
INSTITUTION BASED ASSESSMENT
It is a individual institutions of higher education design and evaluate their own assessment programmes by addressing specific needs and progress of students assessment instruments vary by discipline,programme and institutions.
● IBA is an approaches in evaluating students academic progress in which teachers are given greater responsibility to design quality assessment that align with their students learning outcomes.
● Which is more comprehensive, it focus being an assessment of holistic development of the learner.
● IBA is indeed the only way to make evaluation on a continuous basis , this process being an integral part of the teaching learning process.
● IBA ensures holistic development of the learners, use of written, oral, practical, diagnostic and formative tests are made use for assessing cognitive and practical outcomes related to scholastic aspects of development.
Basic Principle of IBA
1. Both teachers and students are actively involved in the process of evaluation and students do not remains passive listeners.
2. Teacher must ensure that assessment becomes an integral part of institution.
3. Integral assessment should be comprehensive as it takes into account assessment of holistic development of learner and involve class discussion report, laboratory works, written works etc.
4. Development of database and progress of students.
5. Adapted to varying conditions i.e, IBA should be Institution specific.
Factors Consider in IBA
● Class attendance.
● Classroom observation - instruction with students, involvement in process, interest in subjects, ability to express himself, verbaly willingness to accept other etc.
● Provide teacher made test.
● Practical and laboratory and library work assignments.
● Working with community.
Take-home tests.
Take-home tests allow students to work at their own pace with access to books and materials. Take-home tests also permit longer and more involved questions, without sacrificing valuable class time for exams. Problem sets, short answers, and essays are the most appropriate kinds of take-home exams. Be wary, though, of designing a take-home exam that is too difficult or an exam that does not include limits on the number of words or time spent (Jedrey, 1984). Also, be sure to give students explicit instructions on what they can and cannot do: for example, are they allowed to talk to other students about their answers? A variation of a take-home test is to give the topics in advance but ask the students to write their answers in class. Some faculty hand out ten or twelve questions the week before an exam and announce that three of those questions will appear on the exam.
Group Exams
Some faculty have successfully experimented with group exams, either in class or as take-home projects. Faculty report that groups outperform individuals and that student respond positively to group exams. For example, for a fifty-minute in-class exam, use a multiple-choice test of about twenty to twenty-five items. For the first test, the groups can be randomly divided. Groups of three to five students seem to work best. For subsequent tests, you may want to assign students to groups in ways that minimize differences between group scores and balance talkative and quiet students. Or you might want to group students who are performing at or near the same level (based on students‟ performance on individual tests). Some faculty have students complete the test individually before meeting as a group. Others just let the groups discuss the test, item by item. In the first case, if the group score is higher than the individual score of any member, bonus points are added to each individual‟s score. In the second case, each student receives the score of the group.
Paired Testing
For paired exams, pairs of students work on a single essay exam, and the two students turn in one paper. Some students may be reluctant to share a grade, but good students will most likely earn the same grade they would have working alone. Pairs can be self-selected or assigned. For example, pairing a student who is doing well in the course with one not doing well allows for some peer teaching. A variation is to have students work in teams but submit individual answer sheets (Murray, 1990).
Question Bank Systems
In this system a large number of questions from each topic or unit of the syllabus are prepared in advance and require number of questions from each topic or unit of the syllabus at the time of examination or test are taken out from the pool. They are separately printed and test is conducted, with the help of these questions. Making question bank is a regular process in the sense that different varieties of questions of definite number are regularly constructed by experts and added to the bank. All these question s are standardized by adopting systematic procedure of item analysis and total reliability and validity of the test can also be calculated before administering it to the examinees. If question bank is stored in a system then we can give programme to the computer to bring out the required number of items from each topic. We can also get items of required difficulty value by using computer programme and computer can also calculate the reliability or validity of the test which consists of those items.
Summing Up
Being a critical component of the process of education, assessment has to be practiced with extreme care and vigilance. Educational practitioners have to be very cautious of the issues involved in the assessment practices in classrooms and have to take steps to continuously improve its quality and modernise the practice.
Referances
*Areekkuzhiyil, Santhosh. (2021). Issues and Concerns in Classroom Assessment Practices.
*Assessment for learning-
Department of Educational Technology Tamil Nadu Teachers Education University Chennai.
*Commercialization of Education system: A critical analysis Swapnali Borgohain Dept. of Education, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, Assam, India.
